A new study of 23 sacred groves in Manipur finds these traditional forest sanctuaries remain crucial for biodiversity and climate resilience but face mounting threats from urbanisation, habitat degradation and legal gaps.
Imphal, July 29: For centuries, communities in Manipur have protected small patches of forests not through government notifications or environmental regulations, but through faith. Known locally as Umang Lai, or “forest deities”, these sacred groves have survived as living examples of community-led conservation, preserving biodiversity, regulating local ecosystems and sustaining cultural traditions long before modern environmental policies emerged.
A recent study has now offered one of the most detailed assessments of these sacred landscapes, revealing both their ecological significance and the growing pressures threatening their survival.
Published in July 2026 on EcoEvoRxiv under the title “Analysis of in-situ biodiversity conservation and ecosystem management in Twenty-three selected Sacred Groves of Manipur within Indo-Burma Biodiversity Hotspot: Bio-legal aspects”, the study examines 23 sacred groves across five districts of Manipur and evaluates their ecological condition, cultural foundations and legal status.
The research was conducted by Debkumari Bachaspatimayum of the Centre for Conservation, Sustainability & Technology, Midas Touch, Imphal; Brajakishor S. Chingakham of the Biotechnology Research and Innovation Council-Institute of Bioresources and Sustainable Development (BRIC-IBSD), Gangtok; Deshworjit S. Ningombam of Jadonang Memorial College, Noney; Indrajit S. Ningthoujam of BRIC-IBSD, Imphal; and Ratnabali Kongbrailatpam of the Faculty of Law, University of Delhi.
Their findings present a picture of sacred groves as ecological refuges and cultural institutions that continue to support biodiversity conservation in one of the world's most important biological regions, while simultaneously facing increasing threats from urbanisation, changing social values and inadequate legal recognition.
A conservation system older than modern environmental laws
Manipur lies within the Indo-Burma Biodiversity Hotspot, one of the world's most biologically rich yet threatened regions. Within this hotspot, sacred groves have historically functioned as community-protected forests dedicated to local deities and ancestral spirits.
The study notes that Manipur has 365 officially reported sacred groves, the highest number among the northeastern states and the eighth-highest in India. These sites have traditionally been maintained by indigenous communities, particularly the Meitei community, through customary laws, taboos and ritual practices.
Unlike protected areas created through state intervention, sacred groves are governed by spiritual beliefs. Communities regard them as the dwelling places of deities who oversee hills, rivers, lakes and landscapes.
According to the study, traditional restrictions have historically prevented exploitation of these forests. Removing even a small branch, stone or plant from a sacred grove is often considered taboo because the resident deity is believed to protect the surrounding community.
Ancient Meetei manuscripts also record the significance of these sites. The Karthong Lamlen documents around 163 local deities associated with sacred groves across Manipur.
Among the most widely revered deities is Koubru, who is worshipped in 29 sacred groves. Researchers observed that groves associated with Koubru are often among the largest and most biologically diverse. Pakhangba is worshipped in 16 groves, while other important deities include Lairemma, Loyalakpa and Panthoibi.
The study argues that these belief systems effectively created conservation zones centuries before the emergence of formal biodiversity policies.
Ecological reservoirs within a global biodiversity hotspot
While sacred groves are culturally significant, the study emphasises that their ecological value may be equally important.
Researchers conducted field surveys across 23 selected groves located in Bishnupur, Imphal East, Imphal West, Kakching and Thoubal districts. Their findings indicate that these forests serve as biodiversity reservoirs, genetic banks and climate-regulating ecosystems.
The authors describe the groves as micro-scale climate change mitigation models. Mature trees store substantial quantities of carbon, while undisturbed soils act as long-term carbon sinks. Together, they contribute to carbon sequestration and help moderate local climatic conditions.
The forests also play a role in maintaining hydrological balance. Dense vegetation reduces soil erosion, supports groundwater recharge and protects watersheds. Many groves contain ponds or water bodies that continue to serve nearby communities and livestock.
Researchers further note that Manipur's location at the junction of the Indian and Burmese tectonic plates contributes to its status as a Vavilovian centre of origin for several angiospermic plant species. Sacred groves help preserve these genetic resources by providing relatively undisturbed habitats.
In ecological terms, the groves function as islands of biodiversity within increasingly modified landscapes. They often harbour native species that have disappeared from surrounding areas due to land-use changes, infrastructure development and habitat fragmentation.
Living repositories of traditional medicinal knowledge
One of the most significant findings of the study concerns the ethnomedicinal value of sacred groves.
Researchers documented more than 50 plant species with medicinal importance across the 23 surveyed sites. The dominant plant family identified was Leguminosae, although species from several other families were also recorded.
Among the documented plants were Aegle marmelos (Hei-khagok), Ficus racemosa (Heibong), Phyllanthus emblica (Heikru), Centella asiatica (Peeruck), Phlogacanthus thyrsiformis (Nongmangkha), Hedychium flavum (Takhelei) and Toona ciliata (Tairen).
The study notes that leaves are the most frequently used plant part in traditional medicinal practices.
These species form part of a broader body of indigenous knowledge maintained by traditional healers, priests and priestesses. Researchers warn that the loss of sacred groves could result not only in biodiversity decline but also in the erosion of knowledge systems developed over generations.
In many cases, sacred groves preserve both biological resources and the cultural practices associated with their use.
Lai Haraoba and the cultural foundations of conservation
The study identifies the annual Lai Haraoba festival as one of the key mechanisms linking cultural traditions with ecological stewardship.
Celebrated during the onset of the rainy season, Lai Haraoba involves ritual performances, dances and offerings intended to honour local deities and seek blessings for prosperity, fertility and community well-being.
Researchers argue that the festival reinforces collective responsibility towards sacred groves by renewing social and spiritual ties between communities and the landscapes they protect.
Historically, these cultural practices have contributed to sustainable resource management. Community participation, ritual observances and traditional taboos created a framework in which conservation became a social obligation rather than a regulatory requirement.
The study suggests that these traditions remain among the most effective safeguards for sacred groves, particularly in areas where formal conservation mechanisms are weak or absent.
Warning signs from the field
Despite their historical resilience, sacred groves are increasingly under pressure.
The study's conservation assessment of 23 selected groves found that only nine were categorised as "Least Concern". Another nine were classified as "Near Threatened", while five were assessed as "Endangered".
In percentage terms, 39.1 per cent fell into the Least Concern category, 39.1 per cent were Near Threatened and 21.1 per cent were Endangered.
Researchers observed a clear geographical pattern. Groves situated in hilly terrain or near forest margins generally remained better protected. In contrast, groves located within densely populated settlements and urban areas showed significantly higher levels of degradation.
Among the endangered sites identified were Thanga Chingningthou in Bishnupur district, Yangol Ningthou Ayangleima in Bishnupur, Ema Nungthel Leima in Imphal West, Malem Ema Nungthong in Kakching and Ibudhou Hokha Sorarel in Thoubal.
The study highlights Lai Ishing Chaibi in Imphal West as an example of severe degradation, describing it as being in an "unrevivable condition".
Researchers attribute this decline to multiple factors operating simultaneously.
Urbanisation and infrastructure development continue to reduce available natural habitat. Expansion of roads, settlements and public infrastructure has fragmented many sacred groves and altered their ecological character.
Agricultural expansion also contributes to habitat loss around grove boundaries.
In addition, the study identifies a growing trend of constructing concrete community halls and religious structures within sacred grove complexes. While often intended to support community activities, such developments replace permeable soil surfaces with concrete and reduce natural vegetation cover.
Researchers further point to the planting of ornamental species that are not native to local ecosystems. These species may have aesthetic value but often provide limited ecological benefits compared to indigenous vegetation.
The spread of invasive alien species represents another major challenge. Such plants can outcompete native flora and alter the ecological composition of sacred groves over time.
The erosion of traditional protections
Beyond physical threats, researchers identify a deeper cultural challenge.
The traditional belief systems that historically protected sacred groves are weakening under the influence of social change, urban lifestyles and generational shifts.
As younger generations become less connected to customary practices, ancestral taboos that once regulated human activity within sacred groves are increasingly ignored.
The study suggests that the weakening of these cultural institutions has direct ecological consequences. As traditional restrictions erode, activities that were previously prohibited become more common, accelerating habitat degradation.
Researchers describe this process as a breakdown in the socio-cultural mechanisms that historically ensured conservation.
In effect, sacred groves are losing both their ecological integrity and the cultural systems that sustained them.
A legal blind spot
One of the most striking conclusions of the study concerns the absence of a dedicated legal framework for sacred groves.
Although India has a range of environmental and biodiversity laws, researchers argue that sacred groves remain inadequately recognised within existing legislation.
The Biological Diversity Act, 2002 requires local Biodiversity Management Committees to prepare People's Biodiversity Registers (PBRs) documenting local biological resources and traditional knowledge.
However, the study notes a substantial gap in implementation.
Across India, more than 268,000 PBRs have been documented. In Manipur, only 199 have been prepared, leaving much of the state's biodiversity, including many sacred groves, outside formal documentation systems.
Researchers argue that this lack of registration effectively renders many sacred groves legally invisible.
The study also points to ambiguities within the Manipur Forest Rules, 2021, which do not explicitly define or recognise sacred groves. As a result, the legal status of many groves remains uncertain, even when they occur within reserve forest or protected forest landscapes.
Emerging legal precedents
While statutory protection remains limited, researchers note that recent judicial developments may provide opportunities for stronger recognition of sacred landscapes.
The Supreme Court's decision in the Niyamgiri Hills case recognised the cultural and religious rights of indigenous communities linked to sacred landscapes.
More recently, the court's 2024 ruling concerning the Orans of Rajasthan held that these sacred groves should be treated as forests and receive corresponding legal protections.
The study suggests that these decisions could establish important precedents for the protection of sacred groves elsewhere in India, including Manipur.
However, the authors maintain that judicial interventions alone are insufficient and that explicit legislative action remains necessary.
Recommendations for the future
The researchers propose a comprehensive strategy that combines indigenous knowledge systems with modern conservation approaches.
Their primary recommendation is the enactment of a dedicated state law specifically addressing sacred grove protection and management. Such legislation would formally recognise sacred groves and clarify their legal status.
The study also recommends creating a Sacred Groves Register and designating these areas as special conservation zones where activities such as vegetation clearing would be prohibited.
Accelerating the preparation of People's Biodiversity Registers is identified as another urgent priority.
Researchers further call for stronger community participation, particularly among younger generations, to restore cultural connections with sacred groves.
One proposal involves linking ecological restoration directly to cultural practices by encouraging the planting of native ethnomedicinal species during annual Lai Haraoba celebrations.
The study also advocates scientific research into the medicinal plants found within sacred groves, arguing that evidence-based validation of traditional knowledge could strengthen conservation efforts.
A test of conservation and cultural continuity
The study ultimately presents Manipur's sacred groves as more than isolated patches of forest. They are ecological refuges, repositories of traditional knowledge, climate-regulating landscapes and living expressions of cultural identity.
Yet the findings suggest that these spaces are entering a period of growing uncertainty.
As urbanisation expands and traditional institutions weaken, the future of many sacred groves may depend on whether policymakers, communities and conservation agencies can bridge the gap between customary stewardship and formal legal protection.
For centuries, faith served as the primary guardian of Manipur's forest deities. The study argues that preserving them in the decades ahead will require that cultural stewardship be reinforced by modern conservation policy before these unique ecosystems become another casualty of environmental change.
